Rapid Prototype Blog

Archive for February, 2011

Video games are the latest craze among PC and handheld device users. Gamers come in all age types and from different parts of the world as well as varied strata of life and so is the need or demand for games. Whether you talk about growing virtual vegetable, to living virtual life over the internet or ruling the underworld of games, players want more involving and mind-boggling games than ever. This has opened an avenue for both big and large IT players to plunge into this lucrative service sector of taking up casual games development, iPhone games development,Facebook games development, mobile 3D game development or simple 3D game development services projects. Not only that there is lot of money involved in this segment, but it has become increasingly easy to gain popularity by providing the very things users are asking. More and more eyes are turning to such a 3D game company that can produce the most entertaining and captivating game of all times.

Many big players in the industry are looking at 3D gaming projects outsource that would provide them with ultimate services as well as ensure a highly creative and qualitative product. The common factor behind this is that outsourcing to a 3D game company can prove much simpler and cost effective than hiring and managing an in-house team. If you have such a 3D casual game idea that you want to realize into a full fledged video game, then you can always look at a 3D animation gaming design firm that can provide you with excellent services. But before you assign your much loved project to a firm, there are certain aspects or ground rules that you must ensure to make sure your project in the right hands.

Find an Affordable 3D Game Company

Cost is probably the ever lasting issue with any industry segment keeping in mind the global economic slow down. You cannot indulge increased finance into developing a game project, especially when you are initiating the process. Companies that develop flash gamesare usually expensive to hire so you must do a thorough research when you look for a 3D game company that provides you good value for your money. India has turned out to be the world’s favorite destination when it comes to outsourcing game development projects.

3D Game Company – Reliable and Efficient Outsourcing Partner

As you would be outsourcing your project, you must look for a 3D game company that is both reliable as well as efficient to handle your project with expertise. Choose a firm that has expertise in all sorts of video game development and has a wide range of products to vouch for its services. Keeping this in mind you can look for companies that deal with video art as well as animation and can provide your complete services as expected of a outsourcing partner. You must also make sure the company that you choose also undergoes highest levels of quality assurance to provide you with the best of services.

Choose a Creative and Innovative 3D Game Company

If you invest in a game company that provides highly creative and innovative services, you can reap the benefits in manifolds eventually. The basic criteria for choosing a game company is to find one that not only follows the latest technology and trends but is also able to provide out of the box products or services that can help you maximize your return on investment. Opt for a partner who can take up all sorts of game projects like that include 3D casual game, hidden object game, mobile game, flash game and 3D Iphone game outsource projects.

If you are looking at outsourcing a 3d game developer company in India, then opt for Zatun, which can take up almost all types of game development projects. Being one of the best game development companies in India, it has always provided various high quality games like 3d animation iPhone games, 3D casual games, mobile games, PC games, Console games etc.

Zatun is a 3d game company providing Iphone games development, Casual Game development, Facebook game development, 3D Iphone game outsourcing, mobile 3d game development, 3d game development services, 3d casual games and 3d animation for iphone games. Zatun is a 3d animation gaming design firm that develops flash game and it is the best game development company in India. It deals with video art and is a premier 3d game developer in India. For 3d gaming projects outsourcing contact us.

In the rapidly developing world of plastics, design the form of injections is one of the most interesting and challenging jobs was not. You will use all their creative abilities, as you develop a design for new products.

It may look easy, because powerful programs CAD, but in reality, they are just tools to help you. In the design of the injection form, you often have to develop new and original methods of plastic injection molding. Sometimes it requires a lot of creativity and ingenuity. What is a typical day like for injection design forms? Most designers of injection molds to follow the schedule is similar to the shape of the face. Because of their design shapes are soon to be made on the shape of the face, there is a very close relationship between the two.

Forms designer, spends most of his time at his computer, using powerful CAD programs such as Unigraphics, AutoCAD, Solid Works, Mastercam, and many others. Currently the program is incredibly fast and powerful.

Very often, the form designer will need to communicate with various bodies of mold, CNC programmers, WEDM operators and so on. This contact is crucial for a successful career as a designer form of injections.

Typically, the designer is not working as many hours a week as a mold maker. Most forms designers shop background and help in the production of molds, as well as shop. This is especially true if there is a downturn in the design and a lot of work in the shop. How to become a designer injection mold? In fact, there are two ways in the U.S.. One of them, to learn about the work and the other to learn in school design. Both are common and works well.

Many designers molding of die casting came from a background of molds. This is particularly useful to provide a realistic approach to form design. There is no substitute for experience!

Some technologies for schools and universities offer excellent courses on plastic design forms the introduction. Background in mechanics, spatial relationships, the ability to render the 3D, and mathematics are necessary.

Like everything associated with the plastics industry, yes and no. Yes, because the field of plastics is growing all the time, and experienced designers are in high demand and low supply.

No, because the field is so competitive at the global level. In this age of electronics designer does not even need to be in the same country, the creator of forms. I had this experience at one store, the designer was in Canada, and we were in the U.S.. It worked well, but takes considerable time the phone from the project manager. Conclusion Jobs injections design forms is challenging, interesting, safe, well-paid and in demand. Those interested can find a lot of good courses and companies looking for qualified designers.

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Rapid prototype Tooling are often made using FDM technology. The part was made from extruded black ABS and was used for some functional testing.

Initial prototype

3M began this phase by creating stereolithography (SLA) patterns with its in-house SLA equipment. Overflow SLA work was sourced to Vista Technologies. The SLA prototypes were used by engineers and industrial designers to check fit and form. The same prototypes were used by 3M packaging engineers to create conceptual mock-ups of product packaging. They also made excellent tools for ergonomic and usability studies.

To mimic the soft under pad of the sanding tool, Vista used PolyJet(TM) rapid prototype technology. PolyJet was chosen because it can use either of two soft-durometer (a hardness measurement) materials that can be run to gain similar quality parts as SLA technology. TangoBlack, a material with a score of 61 on the Shore A durometer scale, was the best fit. Within days Vista was able to supply 3M with their simulated soft-durometer under pads for more testing.

The bottom pad for the hand sander was prototyped using TangoBlack material from the Polyjet technology. This material is a 61 Shore A material that mimics the properties of santoprene.

At the same time, a gripping/tensioning mechanism for the sanding media was being developed. At this point, the sub-assemblies were merged into a refined set of CAD databases. Additional SLA parts were created to evaluate the new mechanisms. With each new prototype, the team was able to investigate new features in the design. Because these rapid prototype parts could be created cost-effectively in a matter of hours instead of days or even weeks, the team had the ability to study complex forms and details in a manner not possible using traditional machining and fabrication techniques. In some cases multiple iterations were generated in one or two days.

On the left is the hand sander from the prototype tool and the hand sander on the right is from the production tool.

Second-Generation Rapid Prototypes: More Realistic Simulations
In the second generation of the prototypes, 3M needed the hinge function and material properties to be simulated more realistically. After a few design changes were made to the CAD data, Vista Technologies supplied 3M with a Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) prototype.

The FDM part, made from extruded black ABS, allowed for more robust testing and provided similar specified material properties in weight and strength as the final part would have. This prototype was able to handle a variety of tests that allowed 3M to modify their design before production tooling was released.

Rapid Tooling Takes Over

Once 3M completed its work with prototypes, it was time for rapid tooling. Vista Technologies quickly created aluminum tools. Milled at 42,000 rpm with high-speed milling technology and a proprietary fixture system, these tools were made for quick turns and quick modifications.

A core and cavity of a 1+1 family tool of the hand sander top handle. The mold finish is as machined.

The aluminum tools could be modified, polished, textured, welded on, and were capable of shooting 10,000-plus parts. Vista Technologies supplied injection-molded parts within two to three weeks of usable CAD data. By getting specified material parts in hand, 3M could complete their required testing.

A computer rendering of the hand sander concept before prototype.

The rapid tools supplied by Vista Technologies were for multiple parts that made up the sanding products. The parts were made in family tools–meaning several related parts were made in the same tool. By adding runner shut offs to the tools, 3M could turn on or turn off certain parts of the tool–thereby making only the parts they needed. This kept costs down while minimizing wasted material in extra mold inserts. The molds were made with hand pick-outs and manual slides to capture several undercuts in the part design.

3M chose the rapid tooling approach because it allowed them to quickly evaluate different part features and molding parameters. Tooling changes could be completed and parts resampled for evaluation in just a few days. This was a tremendous advantage to 3M.

From an engineering standpoint, they were able to sample several materials for strength and repetitive testing. They were also able to compare the functionality of various latch mechanisms and to check material flow and gate locations (points where material is injected into the tool).

A close-up of a production 3M hand sander. Many methods of rapid prototype and rapid tooling were utilized before production tooling was released.

A 1+1 aluminum mold showing the handles molded in different colors for marketing review.

From a marketing standpoint, along with sampling different materials, they also were able to mold parts in a variety of colors to get important feedback from focus groups. By the time databases were released for production tooling, the mold designs had been optimized and the material and color strategies were in place.

By using rapid tooling, 3M discovered many things in the functional prototypes before cutting production tools. The gating was changed on the production tool, the snap-fit features were redesigned, the handle was modified and ultrasonic energy directors were added for sonic welding of parts in final assembly.

Summary

As rapid prototype and rapid tooling technologies become more sophisticated, the importance of picking the correct technology for product applications can be critical to gaining a competitive edge. As 3M found, a combination of RP and RT technologies and materials helped them save money, speed development time and establish a foothold in the marketplace.

For computer users image scanning is the only way to read electronic files. By this method, the scanner converts the text and graphic paper documents and film to digital images and the conversion process can be analog or digital.

 

Image scanning is a simple and easy process and we work with the scanner, the more efficient and variable, you can use. It is widely used commercially, but home users and Recreation also enjoy the digitization of images, especially if they are amateur photographers. Many artistic creativity also goes into it and it can be fun and useful.

 

Scanning tutorials available online to both image and document scanning. Graphic or text you want to transfer to a computer, you should know how the scanners work. This software usually explained all the steps in detail and to scan images, you can effectively use it to scan color or black and white.

 

To scan a picture of a few simple steps to follow, and each type of scanner software, or the method of scanning a photo on a flatbed scanner is the same. When light shines on the photo, the photo-electric scanner capturing the colors reflected from the points of the image. These colors are red, green and blue (RGB).

 

The pixel or picture element is called each point, and the measurement is in pixels per inch, which is the image resolution. Three numbers representing each pixel in an image, and these figures indicate the brightness of the red, green and blue color. So there are different image formats, and stores information on each format and colors of pixels in different manners.

 

Just to give you a general idea of the POISON or JPG image. A maximum of 256 different colors will be used in a POISON-image, and these colors are stored in an indexed color table. A JPG image is much more diverse, and each color component (RGB) has 256 different possible values, which are three times more variable than the image makes POISON.

 

The POISON has the advantage that it can compress without loss of image quality. Whereas JPG gives the user more freedom to compress the image as much as he wants, but often the image quality is lost, the more you compress it.

 

Image scanning is all about quality. And this quality depends on several factors, including the number of pixels or the number of possible color values for each pixel. Besides color depth, it is important to see how colors work and how they were used to reach the brightness and contrast in the picture show. The image compression can also endanger a loss of quality.

 

All companies on their paper documents into digital images by scanning. It relieves people through the data to work on heavy paper. Digitized images can be stored and converted into a file. You can fit your needs and to a method of document management systems.

www.phasevision.com/ Video Production by New Edge business video productions: www.new-edge.tv

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We see the results of reaction injection molding everywhere! Otherwise known as RIM, you will find the technology in everything from auto parts and tractors to machine parts and tools. The equipment and the products to produce these items have only been around for sixty years or so, and businesses across the US have been in operation for over thirty years. This happened in the 1980′s when the automotive industry began to use more reaction injection molding to make gaskets for panel and radial seal air filters. Because polyurethane, the material used in RIM manufacturing is synthetic, it also has a lower cost than many natural metals that were the former materials to make some of these automotive and machine parts. The toughness and potential flexibility of RIM products, in addition to the wide variety of shapes and sizes that it can make, make polyurethane products an invaluable resource for today’s industries.

How Reaction Injection Molding Works

So many things that we encounter in everyday life are made out of polyurethane. Do we ever think to wonder how they came to get that shape? It had to come from a mold, and a substance had to get into that mold somehow, and that’s how reaction injection molding gets its name. The reaction occurs when two liquid compounds – a polyisocynate component and a resin mixture are fed from separate tanks into a common mixing area. From the two temperature and pressure controlled tanks, they are rapidly “shot” into the mix chamber and undergo a chemical change, and the mixture then flows into the mold.  For smaller parts, this can take just seconds per shot of material and the part can be out of the mold in 30-60 seconds, complete. Larger products, such as automotive bumpers, car hoods and even fenders can also be made with reaction injection molding.

Variability of Reaction Injection Molding

Two different techniques for RIM technology are used to produce items. The first is open cast molding. This is typically less expensive to produce, for the urethane mixture can be hand mixed or put into a urethane dispensing machine and then poured into the mold. The other method is centrifugal casting, described above, and is used when the part needs to be built from the center.

These days, your part can be made with different colors and have a varying degree of hardness and flexibility. The four primary colors of red, blue, yellow and black, and the non-color, white, are most likely available from most reaction injection molding manufacturers. Also, depending on the quantity ordered, you can have custom colors mixed to produce the perfect match for your product.

The hardness and durability of an item may be adjusted as well. Bowling balls, a very hard substance, are made with RIM. Products produced with RIM have a durometer rating – which shows the hardness of the material on a number scale, with the higher the number, the harder the material. Along with the number, a letter is added to describe how dense the material is. This is shown as an A for a lower density to a D for a high density product. A 72D is much more hard and dense than a 28A. RIM allows the variation of how hard and how dense a particular item needs to be. The size of the product would be another consideration, and various manufacturers have different availability of sizes of tooling, or molding equipment. Whenever you see a hard, plastic-like urethane material, it may very well have been fashioned with reaction injection molding.

More Injection Molding Manufacturer Articles

Contents
1.   Introduction
2.     What is SLA and what accounts for the language produced by learners?
3.     The main theories in SLA .
3.1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(CA)
3.2. Error Analysis(EA) and Interlanguage(IL)
3.2.1 Error Analysis (EA)
3.2.2 Interlanguage (IL)

3.3. The Monitor Model
3.4. Universal Grammar (UG)

 

3.5. Socio-linguistic theories
4.      Conclusion

References

 

 

1. Introduction

The language produced by learners learning a second language is extremely varied. It can range from one learner to another in regard to many factors. These variations can be accounted for by a number of ideas including: first language (L1) interface, age differences, motivation, self-confidence, aptitude, anxiety, gender and social distance. In this essay I will define SLA and then outline five of the main linguistic theories. These outlines will form the basis for my analysis of the differences in language that are produced by learners. Finally, I will consider what level of impact these theories have and how they can account for these differences and, the many difficulties and successes that learners have on their way to learning a second language.

 

2. What is SLA and what accounts for the language produced by learners?

Saville-Troike (2006: 2) defines SLA as not just the learning of a subsequent language to that learnt in childhood but also the study of the processes involved and of those who are learning it. The language produced by learners changes as they learn the language and that language can differ from one student to another, even if they have the same L1. The following theories provide an insight into how and why this language may vary. Some are backed up by empirical data, others are not, but all have their strengths and weaknesses and they all have supporters and critics.

 

3. The main theories in SLA

3.1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

In terms of the principles of CAH, Gass and Selinker (1994: 59) state that it is “a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation”.Saville-Troike (2006: 34-35) explain that it focuses on the differences and similarities between the L1 and the Second Language (L2). This means that the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 play a crucial role in learners’ production.

Saville-Troike (2006: 35) also points out that there will be a transfer of elements acquired in the L1 to the target L2. This transfer is considered positive if the same structure exists in both languages and the transfer results in the correct production of language in the L2. However, it can also be negative if a language structure from the L1 does not exist in the L2 but the structure is transferred leading to the production of incorrect language. Arab students often omit the verb to be. For example, this book mine for this book is mine since both of them have the same meaning in Arabic /هذا الكتابُ لي /həðəlkɪtəbʊlɪ/. This kind of error might be made since the verb to be is rarely used in the present tense in Arabic. Because of this, Arab students may apply the Arabic rule to English. On the other hand, Arabic and English share the same idea regarding the position of object pronouns. The object pronouns are placed after the verb in English and Arabic. In contrast, with French, they occur before the verb.

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 30) say that the predictions of CAH, that all the errors made in learning the L2 are due to interface from L1, were shown to be unfounded. They claim that many studies and research explain convincingly that the majority of errors could not be attributed to the L1. In other words, CAH might not predict learning difficulties, and was only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors. This point considerably weakened its appeal. However, the heightened interest in this area did lead to the origin of Error Analysis.

 

 

 

3.2. Error Analysis (EA) and Interlanguage (IL)

3.2.1 Error Analysis (EA)

Mitchell and Myles (2004: 29-30) consider this approach to be influenced by behaviorism through the use of fundamental distinctions between the learners’ first and second languages to predict errors, adding that EA showed that CA was not able to predict most errors. They claim that the differences between L1 and L2 are not necessarily difficult, citing as an example the difference between English and French in terms of unstressed object pronouns.  These cause a problem for English speakers learning French, but not for French speakers learning English. Saville-Troike (2006: 39-40) observes that EA distinguishes between systematic errors, which are due to a lack of L2 knowledge and mistakes, which are made when the knowledge has been processed. She highlights some of EAs shortcomings including:

1.      Some people do not make errors because of L1 interface.

2.      Focusing only on errors does not provide information regarding what the learner has acquired.

3.      Learners may not produce errors because they avoid difficult structures. For example, Arab students avoid using models auxiliaries since they have difficulties in understanding their role in each sentence. They may use I want…, I need …., instead of could I have, I would like ……..?

Overall, EA is not good at accounting for variability in SLA data.

3.2.2 Interlanguage (IL)

Saville-Troike (2006: 40-41) states that the term IL was introduced by Selinker in 1972, “to refer to the intermediate states (or interim grammars) of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2″.

Ellis (1997: 19) hypothesises that the nature of variability changes during the process of L2 development in the stages below:

1.      One form for multi-functions e.g., I live in Manchester, last year I live in London, next year I live in Amman.

2.      Some forms have been acquired e.g. I live in Manchester, last year I lived in London, next year I lived in Amman.

3.      The various forms start to be used systematically. Here the student may write the forms correctly but still use the incorrect forms when speaking.

4.      The student uses the forms correctly and consistently.

3.3. The Monitor Model Theory

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 35) point out Krashen’s theory was based on five hypotheses which are:

1.       Acquisition – Learning hypothesis

Gass and Selinker (1994:144) refer to Krashen’s assertion that ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ are separate knowledge, and that language acquisition is a subconscious process. The acquirers of language are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but they rather develop a kind of correctness. This is certainly the case for young children learning their L1. On the other hand, language learning refers to the conscious knowledge of L2. The learners know the rules, they are aware of them, and are able to talk about them.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 148) criticise this hypothesis. They claim that it does not show evidence of the distinction between acquisition and learning as two separate systems. However, Krashen said that many can produce language fluently without having been taught any rules and there are many that know the rules but are unable to apply them whilst speaking (Lightbown and Spader 1999: 38).

Monitor Hypothesis

Krashen’s hypothesis states that what learners learn is available as a monitor (Saville-Troike (2006: 45). Learners will make changes and edit what they are going to produce. The language that learners have consciously learnt works as an editor in situations where they have sufficient time to edit, are focused on form and know the rule (Gass and Selinker 1994: 145-146). This conscious editor is called the Monitor.

There are variations in use of the monitor that affect the language that learners produce. Acquired language skills can lead to improved fluency but overuse of the monitor can lead to a reduction in fluency (Krashen 1988: 30-31). Moreover, Krashen (1988: 30-31) believes that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to ‘monitor’ use. He claims that the learners who use the ‘monitor’ all the time are ‘over-users’, often producing stilted language whereas, ‘under-users’ will often speak quickly but with a lot of errors. Learners who use the monitor appropriately are considered ‘optimal-users’. These find a good balance between speed and accuracy, continuing to refer to want they have learnt but acknowledging the importance of communication. He emphasise that lack of self-confidence is the major cause for the over-use of the ‘monitor’.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 149) criticise this hypothesis as they believe that the monitor is only useful in production but it is useless in comprehension since it consists of learned knowledge that is used to edit utterances.

Natural Order Hypothesis

According to the natural order hypothesis the acquisition of grammatical structures (rules) proceeds in a predictable order (Gass and Selinker 1994: 145). They add that in a given language, some grammatical structures generally tend to be acquired early while others are acquired late regardless of the L1. They say “the natural order was determined by a synthesis of the results of the morphemes order studies and are a result of the acquired system, without interference from the learned system”. Krashen cited the example that many advanced students in English will still not be able to apply the rule for the third person singular verb, where an –s has to be added to the verb, when speaking quickly.

Input Hypothesis

According to the input hypothesis, SLA cannot take place without sufficient and necessary comprehensible input (Mitchell and Myles 2004: 165). Acquirers develop competency over time by receiving comprehensible input to move their present level to the next. Gass and Selinker (1994: 146) emphasise that this hypothesis is central to Krashen’s description of acquisition and is a complement to the Natural Order Hypothesis.

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Krashen’s hypothesis suggests that not everyone has the same ability in learning a second language and that self-confidence, motivation and anxiety all affect language acquisition (Gass and Selinker 1994: 148). He proposed that an Affective filter acts as a barrier to language input. Krashen (1988: 38) explains that a number of affective variables play a crucial role in SLA. These variables include motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. He claims that learners who are highly motivated, self-confident and less anxious are better equipped for success in SLA. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and anxiety contribute to raise the affective filter which prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, if the filter is high, the input will not pass through and subsequently there will be no acquisition. On the other hand, if the filter is low and the input is understood, the input will take place and acquisition will have taken place.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 148) say that the filter and filter hypotheses explain the failure of SLA according to two parameters: insufficient input and high affective filter, or both.

Gass and Selinker (1994: 150) criticise the Filter Hypothesis because it does not explain how it works? Or how the input filter works? However, others see that it as something that can be seen and applied in the classroom and that it can explain why some students learn and produce better language than others (Lightbown and Spader 1999: 40).

3.4. Universal Grammar (UG)

The definition of UG by Chomsky (1976, as cited by Cook, 2001: 181-182) is “the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages … the essence of human language”. According to Chomsky, there are principles, which allow or prevent a specific structure from occurring in all human languages, and parameters, which govern ways in which human languages differ, usually expressed as a limited choice between two options. These principles and parameters are built in the human mind. In other words, children have an innate faculty that instructs them while learning of language (Mitchell and Myles, 2004: 33).

Saville-Troike (2006: 48-49) gives an example of a principle that Chomsky posited which is that every phrase in every language has the same elements including a head.  For example, a noun phrase has to have a noun, a verb phrase has to have a verb and prepositional phrase has to have a preposition. On the other hand, an example of parameter is the direction of the head. For example, Arabic is a head last language and English is a head first language.

According to Mitchell and Myles (1998: 61-68), UG can account for variations in learner language as follows:

 

1. No access hypothesis

This hypothesis suggests that UG becomes less accessible with age and therefore its involvement will not be available to adult learners. Chomsky believes there is a critical period for language acquisition and UGs application. Adult L2 learners have to be prepared to apply more general problem-solving skills. Evidence by Johnson and Newport (1989, as cited by Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 65) showed that immigrant children mostly become native-like speakers of L2, but their parents very rarely do. I believe this supports Chomsky’s hypothesis.

 

2. Full access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 61) state that the processes of L1 and L2 acquisition are very similar.  The differences noticed between them are due to the difference in cognitive maturity and in the learner’s needs. It is clear that L2 learners acquire principles and parameter settings of L2 which are not similar to L1 settings. Evidence given by Flynn (1996 as cited by Mitchell and Myles 1998: 66) explained that Japanese L1 learners of English as L2 successfully acquire L2 head parameter settings. They use principles in English which do not operate in Japanese.

 

3. Indirect access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles, (1998: 61-62) point out that access to UG is only available to learners indirectly via the L1. They say “there will be just one instantiation (i.e. one working example) of UG which will be available to the L2 learner, with the parameters already fixed to the settings which apply in the L1″. Evidence given by Schachter (1996 as cited in Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 67) showed L2 learners’ failure to acquire principles absent in their L1 and/or failure to reset parameters.

4. Partial access hypothesis

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 62) say that some aspects of UG are still available and others are not. They give an example stating that principles may still be available but parameter settings may not.

In addition, White (2003:1-2) represents the application of the idea of UG to the area of SLA. She argues that SLA is constrained by principles and parameters of UG which is well explained in his book “Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar”.

In terms of criticism, Mitchell and Myles (1998: 70) say that UG as a whole has been exclusively concerned with syntax and the developmental linguistic route followed by learners when learning a L2. Thus, the social and psychological variables that affect the rate of the learning process are beyond its remit and therefore ignored.

3.5. Socio-linguistic theories

Mitchell and Myles (1998: 163) define sociolinguistics as the study of the effect of all aspects of soceity on the language in use. I will focus on the sociocultural theory discussed in Lantolf (1994).

Lantolf (1994: 418) emphasises that the origin of sociocultural theory refers to Vygotsky’s ideas.

In terms of variations in learner language, Vygotsky (1978 as cited in Mitchell and Myles, 1998: 146 ) defines the Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD) as ” the difference between the child’s developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’. Saville-Troike (2006: 112) says that one way is to help learners within the ZPD is through scaffolding which is defined as verbal guidance which an expert helps a learner to solve a specific task or collaboration of peers to solve a task that is difficult for any one of them individually. This means that little collaboration or guidance are the main reason for variation in learner language. For example, talk between peers could be helpful as in the following example:

Student 1:  could I say I am loving you, daddy?

Student 2: I am loving ………..

Student 1: yes, I do not stop loving my daddy.

Student 2: love is a state verb

Student 1:  yes, so I am love you, daddy.

Student 2: I think simple present form with state verbs?

Student 1:  Ah, I love you, daddy.

 

4. Conclusion

To sum up, it is clear that not one individual theory on its own can account for all the variations in learners’ language. Each one has valid points and I have shown some of the variations in language these hypotheses may produce. However, in a lot of cases, there is a lack of empirical evidence and further investigation into these theories may identify new learning and teaching methods.

Teaching methods have to take into account that L2 learners are varied. Learners do not have the same characteristics so they do not all acquire a L2 in the same way and at the same rate. Motivation, aptitude, age, social background and self-confidence affect the learners’ abilities. At the current time, and with the knowledge that is available to us, I think it is important for teachers to consider the most important aspects of each theory when preparing their lessons. Clearly not all theories will be addressed in every lesson, but with careful thought and consideration, the ideas may be applied and the results will show whether or not they are effective for that particular group of students.

 

Acknowledgements

Thanks also to my tutor, Dr Siân Etherington, who has supported and helped me such an article in Second Language Acquisition.

I am also grateful to My close friend, Faisal Mohammed Albisher, for everything.

References

Cook, V. (2001) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (3rd ed). London: Edward Arnold

Ellis, R. (1997) Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Gass, S.M. and Selinker, L. (1994) Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Hillsdale, NJ/ London: Lawrence Erlbaum

Krashen, S. (1988) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. HemelHempstead: Prentice Hall

Lantolf, J.P. (1994) Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning: Introduction to the Special Issue, in The Modern Language Journal, 78(4), pp. 418-420

Lightbown, P.M. and Spade, M. (1999) How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (1998) Second Language Learning Theories London: Edward Arnold

Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (2004) Second Language Learning Theories (2nded).London: Edward Arnold

Saville-Troike, M. (2006) Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

White, L. (2003) Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press M

 

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Related Laser Scanning Surveying Articles

Plot

Note: There are several versions of Blade Runner.

In Los Angeles, November 2019, Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford) a retired police officer, is arrested at a noodle bar by officer Gaff (Edward James Olmos). His former supervisor, Bryant (M. Emmet Walsh), tells him that several “replicants”, biologically engineered humanoids that serve as soldiers and slaves in colonies on other planets, have escaped and come to Earth illegally. As a “blade runner” while active, Deckard’s job was to track down replicants on Earth and “retire” them.

Bryant shows him a video of another blade runner (Morgan Paull), administering a Voight-Kampff test, which distinguishes humans from replicants based on their empathic response to questions. The subject of the test, Leon (Brion James), shoots the tester when it is likely he will be exposed as a replicant.

Deckard agrees to track down Leon and three other replicantsoy Batty (Rutger Hauer), Zhora (Joanna Cassidy) and Pris (Daryl Hannah)fter Bryant threatens him. These replicantsyrell Corporation Nexus-6 modelsave a four-year lifespan as a failsafe to prevent them from developing emotions and desire for independence. They may have come to Earth to try to have these lifespans extended.

Deckard is teamed with Gaff and sent to the Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the Voight-Kampff test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, Deckard discovers that Tyrell’s (Joe Turkel) assistant Rachael (Sean Young) is an experimental replicant who believes she is human; Rachael’s consciousness has been enhanced with childhood memories from Tyrell’s niece. As a result, a more extensive Voight-Kampff test is required to identify her as a replicant. During the testing Rachael suggests that Deckard himself be tested.

Roy and Leon enter the eye manufactory of Chew (James Hong); under interrogation, Chew directs them to J.F. Sebastian (William Sanderson) as their best chance of meeting Tyrell. Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity to him, showing him a family photo. She leaves in tears after Deckard tells her that her memories are implants. Pris meets J.F. Sebastian at his apartment in the Bradbury Building where he lives with his manufactured companions. Deckard finds an image of Zhora in Leon’s photos.

Deckard goes to an area of the city where genetically engineered animals are sold to analyze a scale found in Leon’s bathroom, learning that it came from a snake made by Abdul Ben Hassan (Ben Astar). Hassan directs Deckard to a strip club where Zhora works. Deckard “retires” Zhora, whose death takes place in slow motion as she struggles to flee. Deckard meets with Bryant shortly after and is told to add Rachael to his list of retirements, as she has disappeared from the Tyrell Corporation headquarters. Deckard spots Rachael in the crowd but is attacked by Leon. Rachael saves Deckard by killing Leon, and the two return to Deckard’s apartment, where he roughly initiates sex.

Roy arrives at Sebastian’s apartment and tells Pris they are the only ones left. They gain Sebastian’s help after explaining their plight. Roy discovers that Sebastian is suffering from a genetic disorder that accelerates his aging. Under the pretext of Sebastian informing Tyrell of a move for a game of correspondence chess that they are playing, Roy and Sebastian enter Tyrell’s penthouse. Roy demands an extension to his lifespan from his maker. Tyrell explains that Tyrell Corporation never found a way to accomplish this. Roy asks absolution for his sins, confessing that he has done “questionable things”. Tyrell dismisses this, praising Roy’s advanced design and his accomplishments. He tells Roy to “revel in his time”, to which Roy comments “Nothing the god of biomechanics wouldn’t let you into heaven for”. Roy then holds Tyrell’s head in his hands, gives him a kiss, and kills him. Sebastian runs for the elevator, with Roy following. Roy rides the elevator down alone, and Sebastian is not seen again.

Deckard arrives at Sebastian’s apartment and is ambushed by Pris. He retires her just as Roy returns. Roy punches through a wall, grabbing Deckard’s right arm, and breaks two of his fingers in retaliation for Zhora and Pris. Roy releases Deckard and gives him time to run before he begins hunting him through the Bradbury Building. The symptoms of Roy’s limited lifespan worsen and his right hand begins failing; he jabs a nail through it to regain control. Roy forces Deckard to the roof. As Deckard attempts to escape Roy, he leaps across to another building but falls short and ends up hanging from a rain-slicked girder. As Deckard loses his grip, Roy seizes his arm and hauls him onto the roof. As Roy’s life ends, he delivers a soliloquy on his life “I’ve seen things you people wouldn’t believe: Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion; I’ve watched c-beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhauser Gate. All those moments will be lost in time; like tears in rain. Time to die.”

Gaff shouts over to Deckard, “It’s too bad she won’t live; but then again, who does?” Deckard returns to his apartment to find Rachael alive. As they leave, Deckard finds an origami unicorn, a calling card left by Gaff. Depending on the version, the film ends with Deckard and Rachael either leaving the apartment block to an uncertain future or driving through an idyllic pastoral landscape.

Comparison with novel

As a result of Fancher’s divergence from the novel, numerous re-writes before and throughout shooting the film, and Ridley Scott’s never having read the entire novel on which it was based, the film differed significantly from its original inspiration. Some of the themes in the novel that were minimized or entirely removed include: fertility/sterility of the population, religion, mass media, Deckard’s uncertainty that he is human, and real versus synthetic pets and emotions.

Philip K. Dick refused an offer of 0,000 to write a novelization of the Blade Runner screenplay, saying: “[I was] told the cheapo novelization would have to appeal to the twelve-year-old audience” and “[it] would have probably been disastrous to me artistically.” He added, “That insistence on my part of bringing out the original novel and not doing the novelizationhey were just furious. They finally recognized that there was a legitimate reason for reissuing the novel, even though it cost them money. It was a victory not just of contractual obligations but of theoretical principles.” In the end, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? was reprinted as a tie-in, with the film poster as a cover and the original title in parentheses below the Blade Runner title.

The producers of the film arranged for a screening of some special effects rough cuts for Philip K. Dick shortly before he died in early 1982. Despite his well known skepticism of Hollywood in principle, he became quite enthusiastic about the film. He said, “I saw a segment of Douglas Trumbull’s special effects for Blade Runner on the KNBC-TV news. I recognized it immediately. It was my own interior world. They caught it perfectly.” He also approved of the film’s script, saying, “After I finished reading the screenplay, I got the novel out and looked through it. The two reinforce each other, so that someone who started with the novel would enjoy the movie and someone who started with the movie would enjoy the novel.”

Cast and characters

Main article: List of Blade Runner characters

With the exception of Harrison Ford, Blade Runner used a number of less well-known actors such as Daryl Hannah and Sean Young. The cast includes:

Actor

Character

Notes

Harrison Ford

Rick Deckard

Coming off some success with Star Wars (1977), The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. After Steven Spielberg praised Ford, he was hired for Blade Runner. In 1992, Ford revealed, “Blade Runner is not one of my favorite films. I tangled with Ridley.” Apart from friction with the director, Ford also disliked the voiceovers: “When we started shooting it had been tacitly agreed that the version of the film that we had agreed upon was the version without voiceover narration. It was a f**king [sic] nightmare. I thought that the film had worked without the narration. But now I was stuck re-creating that narration. And I was obliged to do the voiceovers for people that did not represent the director’s interests.” “I went kicking and screaming to the studio to record it.”

Rutger Hauer

Roy Batty

The violent yet thoughtful leader of replicants; regarded by Philip K. Dick as “the perfect Battyold, Aryan, flawless”. Of the many films Hauer has done, Blade Runner is his favorite. As he explained in a live chat in 2001, “BLADE RUNNER needs no explanation. It just IZZ [sic]. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real MASTERPIECE which changed the world’s thinking. It’s awesome.”

Sean Young

Rachael

Tyrell’s assistant. Rachael is a replicant with memories that belonged to Tyrell’s niece.

Edward James Olmos

Gaff

Olmos used his diverse ethnic background, and some in-depth personal research, to help create the fictional “Cityspeak” language his character uses in the film. His initial addresses to Deckard at the noodle bar is partly in Hungarian, and means, “Horse dick! No way. You are the Blade … Blade Runner.”

Daryl Hannah

Pris

a “basic pleasure model”.

M. Emmet Walsh

Captain Bryant

Walsh lived up to his reputation as a great character actor with the role of a hard-drinking, sleazy and underhanded police veteran typical of the film noir genre.

Joe Turkel

Dr. Eldon Tyrell

This corporate mogul has built an empire on genetically manipulated humanoid slaves.

William Sanderson

J. F. Sebastian

a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. J.F. is able to sympathize with the replicants’ short lifespan because he has progeria, a genetic disease that causes faster aging and a short lifespan.

Brion James

Leon Kowalski

a replicant masquerading as a waste disposal engineer.

Joanna Cassidy

Zhora

a special-ops, undercover and assassin model. Cassidy portrays a strong female replicant who has seen the worst humanity has to offer.

Morgan Paull

Holden

The Blade Runner initially assigned to the case, he is shot by Leon while screening new Tyrell employees in an attempt to find the replicants, prompting his replacement with Deckard.

James Hong

Hannibal Chew

an elderly Asian geneticist specializing in synthetic eyes.

Hy Pyke

Taffey Lewis

Pyke conveys Lewis’s sleaziness with ease and with one take; something almost unheard-of with Scott’s drive for perfection resulting at times in double-digit takes.

Production

One of filming locations is Bradbury Building

in Los Angeles, California.

Interest in adapting Philip K. Dick’s novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? developed shortly after its 1968 publication. According to Dick, director Martin Scorsese was interested in filming the novel, but never optioned it. Producer Herb Jaffe optioned it in the early 1970s, but Dick wasn’t impressed with the screenplay: “Robert Jaffe, who wrote the screenplay, flew down here to Orange County. I said to him then that it was so bad that I wanted to know if he wanted me to beat him up there at the airport or wait till we got to my apartment.” The screenplay by Hampton Fancher was optioned in 1977.

Producer Michael Deeley became interested in Fancher’s draft and convinced director Ridley Scott to use it to create his first American film. Scott had previously declined the project, but after leaving the slow production of Dune, wanted a faster-paced project to take his mind off his older brother’s recent death. He joined the project on February 21, 1980, and managed to push up the promised financing from Filmways from  million to  million. Fancher’s script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and faith, which weighed heavily in the novel. Scott wanted changes. Fancher found a cinema treatment by William S. Burroughs for Alan E. Nourse’s novel The Bladerunner (1974), entitled Blade Runner (a movie). Scott liked the name, so Deeley obtained the rights to the titles. Eventually he hired David Peoples to rewrite the script, and Fancher left the job on December 21, 1980, over the issue, although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites.

Having invested over .5 million in pre-production, as the date of commencement of principal photography neared, Filmways withdrew financial backing. In ten days, Deeley secured .5 million in financing through a three way deal between The Ladd Company (through Warner Bros.), the Hong Kong-based producer Sir Run Run Shaw, and Tandem Productions.

Philip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film’s production, which added to his distrust of Hollywood. After Dick criticized an early version of Hampton Fancher’s script in an article written for the Los Angeles Select TV Guide, the studio sent Dick the David Peoples rewrite. Although Dick died shortly before the film’s release, he was pleased with the rewritten script, and with a twenty-minute special effects test reel that was screened for him when he was invited to the studio. Dick enthused after the screening to Ridley Scott that the world created for the film looked exactly as he had imagined it. The motion picture was dedicated to Dick.

Another shot of Bradbury Building.

Blade Runner has numerous and deep similarities to Fritz Lang’s Metropolis, including a built up urban environment, in which the wealthy literally live above the workers, dominated by a huge buildinghe Stadtkrone Tower in Metropolis and the Tyrell Building in Blade Runner. Special effects supervisor David Dryer used stills from Metropolis when lining up Blade Runner’s miniature building shots.

Ridley Scott credits Edward Hopper’s painting Nighthawks and the French science fiction comic magazine Mtal Hurlant (Heavy Metal), to which the artist Moebius contributed, as stylistic mood sources. He also drew on the landscape of “Hong Kong on a very bad day” and the industrial landscape of his one-time home in the North East of England. Scott hired as his conceptual artist Syd Mead, who, like Scott, was influenced by Mtal Hurlant. Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre-production of Blade Runner, but he declined so that he could work on Ren Laloux’s animated film Les Matres du temps, a decision he later regretted. Lawrence G. Paull (production designer) and David Snyder (art director) realized Scott’s and Mead’s sketches. Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich supervised the special effects for the film. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9, 1981, and ended four months later.

Casting the film proved troublesome, particularly for the lead role of Deckard. Screenwriter Hampton Fancher envisioned Robert Mitchum as Deckard, and wrote the character’s dialogue with Mitchum in mind. Director Ridley Scott and the film’s producers “spent months” meeting and discussing the role with Dustin Hoffman, who eventually departed over differences in vision. Harrison Ford was ultimately chosen for several reasons, including his performance in the Star Wars films, Ford’s interest in the story of Blade Runner, and discussions with Steven Spielberg, who was finishing Raiders of the Lost Ark at the time and strongly praised Ford’s work in the film. According to production documents, a long list of actors were considered for the role, including, but not limited to, Gene Hackman, Sean Connery, Jack Nicholson, Paul Newman, Clint Eastwood, Tommy Lee Jones, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Al Pacino, and Burt Reynolds.

Casting the roles of Rachael and Pris was also challenging; a lengthy series of screen tests were filmed with numerous actresses auditioning for the roles. Morgan Paull, who played the role of Deckard during the screen tests with actresses auditioning for the role of Rachael, was cast as Deckard’s fellow bounty hunter Holden based on his performances in the tests. One role that was not difficult to cast was Roy Batty: Ridley Scott cast Rutger Hauer without having met him, based solely on Hauer’s performances in other films Scott had seen. Joe Pantoliano, who later played the role of Cypher in the Blade Runner-inspired The Matrix, was considered for the role of Sebastian.

In 2006, Ridley Scott was asked “Who’s the biggest pain in the arse you’ve ever worked with?” He replied: “It’s got to be Harrison … he’ll forgive me because now I get on with him. Now he’s become charming. But he knows a lot, that’s the problem. When we worked together it was my first film up and I was the new kid on the block. But we made a good movie.” Ford said of Scott in 2000: “I admire his work. We had a bad patch there, and I over it.” More recently in 2006, Ford reflected on the production of the film saying: “What I remember more than anything else when I see Blade Runner is not the 50 nights of shooting in the rain, but the voiceover … I was still obliged to work for these clowns that came in writing one bad voiceover after another.” Ridley Scott confirmed in the summer 2007 issue of Total Film that Harrison Ford contributed to the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD, having already done his interviews. “Harrison’s fully on board”, said Scott.

Interpretation

Main article: Themes in Blade Runner

Despite appearing to be an action film, Blade Runner operates on multiple dramatic and narrative levels; it is greatly indebted to film noir conventions: the femme fatale, protagonist-narration (removed in later versions), dark and shadowy cinematography, and the questionable moral outlook of the heron this case, extended to include reflections upon the nature of his own humanity.

It is a literate science fiction film, thematically enfolding the philosophy of religion and moral implications of human mastery of genetic engineering in the context of classical Greek drama and hubris, and draws on Biblical images, such as Noah’s flood, and literary sources, such as Frankenstein. Linguistically, the theme of mortality is subtly reiterated in the chess game between Roy and Tyrell based on the famous Immortal game of 1851, though Scott has said that was coincidental.

Dr. Tyrell polarizing his office window to control the Sun implies the god-like powers of the Tyrell Corporation.

Blade Runner delves into the implications of technology for the environment and society by reaching to the past, using literature, religious symbolism, classical dramatic themes, and film noir. This tension, between past, present, and future is mirrored in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is high-tech and gleaming in places but decayed and old elsewhere. Interviewing Ridley Scott in 2002, reporter Lynn Barber in The Observer described the film as: “extremely dark, both literally and metaphorically, with an oddly masochistic feel”. Director Scott said he “liked the idea of exploring pain” in the wake of his brother’s skin cancer death. “When he was ill, I used to go and visit him in London, and that was really traumatic for me.”

An aura of paranoia suffuses the film. Corporate power looms large, the police seem omnipresent, vehicle and warning lights probe into buildings, and the consequences of huge biomedical power over the individual are exploredspecially the consequences for replicants of their programming. Control over the environment is depicted as taking place on a vast scale, hand in hand with the absence of any natural life, with artificial animals substituting for their extinct templates. This oppressive backdrop explains the frequently referenced migration of humans to extra-terrestrial (“off-world”) colonies. The dystopian themes explored in “Blade Runner” are an early example of cyberpunk concepts expanding into film. Eyes are a recurring motif, as are manipulated images, calling into question reality and our ability to accurately perceive and remember it.

These thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for Blade Runner’s central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants, an empathy test is used, with a number of its questions focused on the treatment of animalst seems to be an essential indicator of someone’s “humanity”. The replicants are juxtaposed with human characters who lack empathy, while the replicants appear to show compassion and concern for one another at the same time as the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is a human, and forces the audience to reevaluate what it means to be human.

The question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film’s release. Both Michael Deeley and Harrison Ford wanted Deckard to be human while Hampton Fancher preferred ambiguity. Ridley Scott has confirmed that in his vision Deckard is a replicant. Deckard’s unicorn dream sequence inserted into the Director’s Cut coinciding with Gaff’s parting-gift of an origami unicorn is seen by many as showing Deckard is a replicant as Gaff could have access to Deckard’s implanted memories. The interpretation that Deckard is a replicant is challenged by others who believe unicorn imagery shows that the characters, whether human or replicant, share the same dreams and recognise their affinity, or that the absence of a decisive answer is crucial to the film’s main theme. The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of the film, as well as its textual richness, have permitted viewers to see it from their own perspective.

Reception

Blade Runner was released in 1,290 theaters on June 25, 1982. That date was chosen by producer Alan Ladd, Jr. because his previous highest-grossing films (Star Wars and Alien) had a similar opening date (May 25) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his “lucky day”. However, the gross for the opening weekend was a disappointing .15 million. A significant factor in the film’s rather poor box office performance was that its release coincided with other science fiction film releases, including The Thing, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, and, most significantly, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, which dominated box office revenues that summer.

Film critics were polarized as some felt the story had taken a back seat to special effects and that it was not the action/adventure the studio had advertised. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time.

In the United States, a general criticism was its slow pacing that detracts from other strengths; Sheila Benson from the Los Angeles Times called it “Blade crawler”, while Pat Berman in State and Columbia Record described it as “science fiction pornography”. Roger Ebert praised both the original and the Director’s cut version of Blade Runner’s visuals and recommended it for that reason; however, he found the human story clichd and a little thin. In 2007, upon release of The Final Cut, Roger Ebert somewhat revised his original opinion of the film and added it to his list of Great Movies.

Awards and nominations

Blade Runner has won and been nominated for the following awards:

Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

1982

British Society of Cinematographers

Best Cinematography Award

Jordan Cronenweth

Nominated

1982

Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award

Best Cinematography

Jordan Cronenweth

Won

1983

BAFTA Film Award

Best Cinematography

Jordan Cronenweth

Won

Best Costume Design

Charles Knode & Michael Kaplan

Won

Best Production Design/Art Direction

Lawrence G. Paull

Won

Best Film Editing

Terry Rawlings

Nominated

Best Make Up Artist

Marvin Westmore

Nominated

Best Score

Vangelis

Nominated

Best Sound

Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, Gerry Humphreys

Nominated

Best Special Visual Effects

Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer

Nominated

1983

Hugo Award

Best Dramatic Presentation

Blade Runner

Won

1983

London Critics Circle Film Awards

Special Achievement Award

Lawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, Syd Mead

Won

1983

Golden Globe Award

Best Original Score – Motion Picture

Vangelis

Nominated

1983

Academy Awards

Best Art Direction – Set Decoration

Lawrence G. Paull, David L. Snyder, Linda DeScenna

Nominated

Best Effects, Visual Effects

Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer

Nominated

1983

Saturn Award

Best Science Fiction Film

Blade Runner

Nominated

Best Director

Ridley Scott

Nominated

Best Special Effects

Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich

Nominated

Best Supporting Actor

Rutger Hauer

Nominated

1983

Fantasporto

International Fantasy Film Award

Best Film Ridley Scott

Nominated

1993

Fantasporto

International Fantasy Film Award

Best Film Ridley Scott (Director’s cut)

Nominated

1994

Saturn Award

Best Genre Video Release

Blade Runner (Director’s cut)

Nominated

2008

Saturn Award

Best DVD Special Edition Release

Blade Runner (5 Disc Ultimate Collector’s Edition)

Won

Lists of the best films

Current recognitions for Blade Runner include:

Blade Runner is currently ranked the third best film of all time by The Screen Directory.

On theyshootpictures.com top 1000 movies of all time, based on 2041 critics’ and filmmakers’ favorite movie lists, Blade Runner was voted #66 in 2006, #55 in 2007, #46 in 2008 and #40 in 2010. It is higher than every other movie made after it.

British movie magazine Empire voted it the “Best Science Fiction Film Ever” in 2007.

In 2002, Blade Runner was voted the 8th greatest film of all time in Channel 4′s 100 Greatest Films poll.

New Scientist readers voted it as the “all-time favourite science fiction” film in October 2008.

Year

Presenter

Title

Rank

Notes

2008

Empire

The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time

20

American Film Institute (AFI)

Top 10 Sci-fi Films of All Time

6

2007

AFI’s 100 Years100 Movies

97

2006

Total Film Readers

100 Greatest Movies of All Time

32

2005

Total Film Editors

47

Time Magazine Critics

“All-TIME” 100 Best Movies

None

2004

The Guardian, Scientists

Top 10 Sci-fi Films of All Time

1

2003

1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die

None

2002

50 Klassiker, Film

Online Film Critics Society (OFCS)

Top 100 Sci-fi Films of the Past 100 Years

2

Cultural influence

A police spinner flying beside huge advertising-laden skyscrapers. These special effects are benchmarks that have influenced many subsequent science-fiction films.

While not initially a success with North American audiences, the film was popular internationally and became a cult film. The film’s dark style and futuristic design have served as a benchmark and its influence can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films, anime, video games, and television programs. For example, Ronald D. Moore and David Eick, the producers of the re-imagining of Battlestar Galactica, have both cited Blade Runner as one of the major influences for the show. Blade Runner continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time. The film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in university courses. In 2007, it was named the 2nd most visually influential film of all time by the Visual Effects Society.

Blade Runner is one of the most musically sampled films of the 20th century, and inspired the Grammy nominated song “More Human than Human” by White Zombie.

Blade Runner has influenced adventure games, such as Rise of the Dragon, Snatcher, Beneath a Steel Sky and Flashback: The Quest for Identity, the anime series Bubblegum Crisis, the role-playing game Shadowrun, the first-person shooter Perfect Dark, and the Syndicate series of video games. The film is also cited as the a major influence on Warren Spector, designer of the computer-game Deus Ex, which both in its visual rendering and plot displays evidence of the film’s influence. The look of the film (darkness, neon lights and opacity of vision) is easier to render than complicated backdrops, making it a popular choice for game designers.

Blade Runner has also been the subject of parody, such as the comics Blade Bummer by Crazy comics, Bad Rubber by Steve Gallacci, and the Red Dwarf special episodes, “Back To Earth”.

Blade Runner curse

Among the folklore that has developed around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a curse to the companies whose logos were displayed prominently as product placements in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, more than half experienced disastrous setbacks during the next decade. RCA, which at one time was the United States’ leading consumer electronics and communications conglomerate, was bought out by one-time parent GE in 1985, and dismantled. Atari, which dominated the home video game market when the film came out, never recovered from the next year’s downturn in the industry, and by the 1990s had ceased to represent anything more than a brand, a back catalogue of games and some legacy computers. Atari today is an entirely different firm, using the former company’s name. Cuisinart similarly went bankrupt in 1989, though it lives on under new ownership. The Bell System monopoly was broken up that same year, and most of the resulting Regional Bell operating companies have since changed their names and merged back with each other and other companies to form the new AT&T. Pan Am suffered the terrorist bombing/destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 and after a decade of mounting losses, finally went bankrupt in 1991 with the falloff in overseas travel caused by the Gulf War. The Coca-Cola Company suffered losses during its failed introduction of New Coke in 1985, but soon afterward regained its market share. Its continued success has made Coca-Cola one of several exceptions to the Blade Runner curse; also appearing in the film are logos for Budweiser, and the electronics company TDK, which continue to thrive in contemporary markets.

Future Noir

Further information: Future noir

Before the film’s principal photography began, Cinefantastique magazine commissioned Paul M. Sammon to write an article about Blade Runner’s production, which became the book Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner (referred to as the “Blade Runner Bible” by many of the film’s fans). The book chronicles the evolution of Blade Runner as a film, and focuses on film-set politics, especially the British director’s experiences with his first American film crew, of which producer Alan Ladd, Jr. has said, “Harrison wouldn’t speak to Ridley and Ridley wouldn’t speak to Harrison. By the end of the shoot Ford was ‘ready to kill Ridley’, said one colleague. He really would have taken him on if he hadn’t been talked out of it.” Future Noir has short cast biographies and quotations about their experiences in making Blade Runner, as well as many photographs of the film’s production, and preliminary sketches. The cast chapter was deleted from the first edition; it is available online. A second edition of Future Noir was published in 2007.

Soundtrack

Main article: Blade Runner (soundtrack)

The Blade Runner soundtrack by Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by Ridley Scott. Vangelis, fresh from his Academy Award winning score for Chariots of Fire, composed and performed the music on his synthesizers. He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator Demis Roussos. Another memorable sound is the haunting tenor sax solo “Love Theme” by UK saxophonist Dick Morrissey, who appeared on many of Vangelis’ albums. Ridley Scott also used “Memories of Green” from Vangelis’ album See You Later (an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film Someone To Watch Over Me).

Along with Vangelis’ compositions and ambient textures, the film’s sound scape also features a track by the Japanese Ensemble Nipponia (‘Ogi No Mato’ or ‘The Folding Fan as a Target’ from the Nonesuch Records release “Traditional Vocal And Instrumental Music”) and a track by harpist Gail Laughton (“Harps of the Ancient Temples” from Laurel Records).

Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score, and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the official soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from Blade Runner. In light of the lack of a release of an album, the New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would in 1989 surface on the compilation Vangelis: Themes, but not until the 1992 release of the Director’s Cut version would a substantial amount of the film’s score see commercial release.

These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many bootleg recordings over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 “Off World Music, Ltd.” created a bootleg CD that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis’ official CD in 1994. A disc from “Gongo Records” features most of the same material, but with slightly better sound quality. In 2003, two other bootlegs surfaced, the “Esper Edition”, closely preceded by “Los Angeles: November 2019″. The double disc “Esper Edition” combined tracks from the official release, the Gongo boot and the film itself. Finally “2019″ provided a single disc compilation almost wholly consisting of ambient sound from the film, padded out with some sounds from the Westwood game Blade Runner.

A set with three CDs of Blade Runner-related Vangelis music was released on December 10, 2007. Titled Blade Runner Trilogy, the first CD contains the same tracks as the 1994 official soundtrack release, the second CD contains previously unreleased music from the movie, and the third CD is all newly composed music from Vangelis, inspired by, and in the spirit of the movie.

Versions

The 5-Disc limited edition DVD set, packaged in a reproduction Voight-Kampff test case.

The contents of the 5-Disc limited edition DVD set.

Main article: Versions of Blade Runner

Seven different versions of Blade Runner have been shown:

Original workprint version (1982, 113 minutes) shown to audience test previews in Denver and Dallas in March 1982. It was also seen in 1990 and 1991 in Los Angeles and San Francisco as a Director’s Cut without Scott’s approval. Negative responses to the test previews led to the modifications resulting in the U.S. theatrical version, while positive response to the showings in 1990 and 1991 pushed the studio to approve work on an official director’s cut. It was re-released with 5-disc Ultimate Edition in 2007.

A San Diego Sneak Preview shown only once in May 1982, which was almost identical to the Domestic Cut with three extra scenes.

The U.S. theatrical version (1982, 116 minutes), known as the original version or Domestic Cut, released on Betamax and VHS in 1983 and laserdisc in 1987.

The International Cut (1982, 117 minutes) also known as the “Criterion Edition” or uncut version, included more violent action scenes than the U.S. theatrical version. Although initially unavailable in the U.S. and distributed in Europe and Asia via theatrical and local Warner Home Video laserdisc releases, it was later released on VHS and Criterion Collection laserdisc in North America, and re-released in 1992 as a “10th Anniversary Edition”.

The U.S. broadcast version (1986, 114 minutes), the U.S. theatrical version edited for violence, profanity and nudity by CBS to meet broadcast restrictions.

The Ridley Scott-approved (1992, 116 minutes) Director’s Cut; prompted by the unauthorized 1990  One workprint theatrical release and made available on VHS and laserdisc in 1993, and on DVD in 1997. Significant changes from the theatrical version include removal of Deckard’s voice-over, re-insertion of a unicorn sequence and removal of the studio-imposed happy ending. Ridley did provide extensive notes and consultation to Warner Brothers through film preservationist Michael Arick who was put in charge of creating the Director’s Cut.

Ridley Scott’s Final Cut (2007, 117 minutes), or the “25th Anniversary Edition”, released by Warner Bros. theatrically on October 5, 2007, and subsequently released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray in December 2007 (U.K. December 3; U.S. December 18). This is the only version over which Ridley Scott had complete artistic control as the Director’s Cut was rushed and he was not directly in charge. In conjunction with the Final Cut, extensive documentary and other materials were produced for the home video releases culminating in a five-disc “Ultimate Collector’s Edition” release by Charles de Lauzirika.

Documentaries

On the Edge of Blade Runner (2000)

On the Edge of Blade Runner (55 minutes) was produced in 2000 by Nobles Gate Ltd. (for Channel 4), was directed by Andrew Abbott and hosted/written by Mark Kermode. Interviews with production staff, including Scott, give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction. Stories from Paul M. Sammon and Hampton Fancher provide insight into Philip K. Dick and the origins of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?.

Interwoven are cast interviews (with the notable exceptions of Harrison Ford and Sean Young), which convey some of the difficulties of making the film (including an exacting director and humid, smoggy weather). There is also a tour of some locations, most notably the Bradbury Building and the Warner Bros. backlot that became the LA 2019 streets, which look very different from Scott’s dark vision.

The documentary then details the test screenings and the resulting changes (the voice over, the happy ending, and the deleted Holden hospital scene), the special effects, the soundtrack by Vangelis, and the unhappy relationship between the filmmakers and the investors which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film. The question of whether or not Deckard is a replicant surfaces.

Future Shocks (2003)

Future Shocks (27 minutes) is a more recent documentary from 2003 by TVOntario (part of their Film 101 series using footage compiled over the years for Saturday Night at the Movies). It includes interviews with executive producer Bud Yorkin, Syd Mead, and the cast, this time with Sean Young, but still without Harrison Ford. There is extensive commentary by science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics, as the documentary focuses on the themes, visual impact and influence of the film. Edward James Olmos describes Ford’s participation, and personal experiences during filming are related by Young, Walsh, Cassidy and Sanderson. They also relate a story about crew members creating T-shirts that took pot shots at Scott. The different versions of the film are critiqued and the accuracy of its predictions of the future are discussed.

Dangerous Days (2007)

Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner is an approximately three and a half hour long documentary directed and produced by Charles de Lauzirika for the 2007 Final Cut version of the film. It appears with every edition of The Final Cut on DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray. (It is a DVD format disc, even in the HD DVD and Blu-ray editions). It was culled from over 80 interviews, including Harrison Ford, Sean Young, Rutger Hauer, Edward James Olmos, Jerry Perenchio, Bud Yorkin and Ridley Scott, and also contains several alternate and deleted shots within the context of the documentary itself.

The documentary consists of eight chapters, each covering a portion of the film-makingr in the case of the final chapter, the film’s controversial legacy. The chapters and their length:

Incept Date  1980: Screenwriting and Dealmaking  30:36

Blush Response: Assembling the Cast  22:46

A Good Start: Designing the Future  26:34

Eye of the Storm: Production Begins  28:48

Living in Fear: Tension on the Set  29:23

Beyond the Window: Visual effects  28:49

In Need of Magic: Post-Production Problems  23:05

To Hades and Back: Release and Resurrection  24:12

All Our Variant Futures (2007)

All Our Variant Futures: From Workprint to Final Cut (29 minutes), produced by Paul Prischman, appears on Disc 5 of the Blade Runner Ultimate Collector’s Edition and provides an overview of the film’s multiple versions and their origins, as well as detailing the seven year-long restoration, enhancement and remastering process behind The Final Cut. Included are interviews with director Ridley Scott, restoration producer Charles de Lauzirika, restoration consultant Kurt P. Galvao, restoration VFX supervisor John Scheele and Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner author Paul M. Sammon. Behind-the-scenes footage documenting the restorationrom archival work done in 2001 through the 2007 filming of Joanna Cassidy and Benjamin Ford for The Final Cut’s digital fixesre seen throughout.

Additional featurettes (2007)

In addition to Dangerous Days: Making Blade Runner, a variety of other supplemental featurettes produced and directed by Charles de Lauzirika are included both the four- and five-disc collector’s editions of Blade Runner released by Warner Home Video in 2007:

The Electric Dreamer: Remembering Philip K. Dick  14:22

Sacrificial Sheep: The Novel Vs. The Film  15:07

Philip K. Dick: The Blade Runner Interviews  23:03

Signs of the Times: Graphic Design  13:40

Fashion Forward: Wardrobe and Styling  20:40

Screen Tests: Rachael and Pris  8:54

The Light That Burns: Remembering Jordan Cronenweth  19:58

Deleted & Alternate Scenes  45:47

Promoting Dystopia: Rendering the Poster Art  9:35

Deck-A-Rep: The True Nature of Rick Deckard  9:30

Nexus Generation: Fans and Filmmakers  21:49

1982 Promotional Featurettes  36:21

Sequels

K.W. Jeter, a friend of Philip K. Dick, has written three official, authorised Blade Runner novels that continue Rick Deckard’s story, attempting to resolve many differences between Blade Runner and the source novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?.

Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995)

Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night (1996)

Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon (2000)

Ridley Scott apparently toyed with the idea of a sequel film, which would have been titled Metropolis. However, the project was ultimately shelved due to rights issues. A script was also written for a proposed sequel entitled Blade Runner Down, which would have been based on K. W. Jeter’s first Blade Runner sequel novel. At the 2007 Comic-Con, Scott again announced that he is considering a sequel to the film. By September 2008, Eagle Eye co-writer Travis Wright was writing the screenplay. Wright worked with producer Bud Yorke for a few years on the project. His colleague John Glenn, who left the film by 2008, stated the script explores the nature of the off-world colonies as well as what happens to the Tyrell Corporation in the wake of its founder’s death.

Prequel

In June 2009, The New York Times reported that Ridley Scott, together with his brother Tony Scott, was working on a prequel to Blade Runner. The prequel, entitled Purefold, will be a series of 510 minute shorts, aimed first at the Web and then perhaps television, and will be set at a point in time before 2019. Due to rights issues, the series will not be linked too closely to the characters or events of the 1982 film.

Other adaptations

Comics

Archie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation, A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner, published September 1982. The Jim Steranko cover leads into a 45-page adaptation illustrated by the team of Al Williamson, Carlos Garzon, Dan Green and Ralph Reese. This adaptation includes one possible explanation of the title’s significance in story context: the narrative line, “Blade runner. You’re always movin’ on the edge”.

In 2009, BOOM! Studios published a 24-issue miniseries comic book adaptation of the Blade Runner source novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?

Video games

Main articles: Blade Runner (1985 video game) and Blade Runner (1997 video game)

There are two video games based on the film, one for Commodore 64, Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC (1985) by CRL Group PLC based on the music by Vangelis (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure PC game (1997) by Westwood Studios. The Westwood PC game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the Blade Runner world, coupled with voice work from some of the original cast from the film and some recurring locations from the film. The events portrayed in the 1997 game occur not after, but in parallel to those in the filmhe player assumes the role of another replicant-hunter working at the same time as Deckard, though of course they never meet, so as to remain consistent with the film.

The PC game featured a non-linear plot, non-player characters that each ran in their own independent AI, and an unusual pseudo-3D engine (which eschewed polygonal solids in favor of voxel elements) that did not require the use of a 3D accelerator card to play the game.

A prototype board game was also created in California (1982) that had game play similar to Scotland Yard.

Television series

Main article: Total Recall 2070

Though not an official sequel to Blade Runner, Total Recall 2070 was initially planned as a spin-off of the movie Total Recall but transformed into a hybrid of that movie and Blade Runner. There are many similarities between the television series and the Blade Runner universe. The series takes place in a dark, crowded, industrial, and cosmopolitan setting. David Hume is a senior detective for the Citizens Protection Bureau (CPB) who is partnered with Ian Farve, an Alpha Class android. The series focused on questions such as the nature of humanity and the rights of androids. The series was based on two works by Phillip K. Dick: “We Can Remember It for You Wholesale” (the basis for the film Total Recall), and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (the basis for Blade Runner).

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Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical objects using additive manufacturing technology. To learn more about rapid prototyping, herunder I elaborate a 5 steps process to create a rapid prototyping model

A 3D Computer aided model (CAD) of the initial idea or concept sketch design will be created.
This 3D CAD model will be converted in a STL or IGES format.
The STL model will be sliced into thin cross-sectional layers.
The model will be constructed one later atop another.
The model will be finished and cleaned: your rapid prototype is ready!

CAD Model Creation: First, the object to be built is modeled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software package. Solid modelers, such as Pro/ENGNEER, tend to represent 3-D objects more accurately than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can use a pre-existing CAD file or may wish to create one expressly for prototyping purposes. This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.

Conversion to STL Format: The various CAD packages use a number of different algorithms to represent solid objects. To establish consistency, the STL (stereolithography, the first RP technique) format has been adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles, “like the facets of a cut jewel.” 6 The file contains the coordinates of the vertices and the direction of the outward normal of each triangle. Because STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation, but at the cost of bigger file size. Large, complicated files require more time to pre-process and build, so the designer must balance accuracy with manageablility to produce a useful STL file. Since the .stl format is universal, this process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.

Slice the STL File: In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built. Several programs are available, and most allow the user to adjust the size, location and orientation of the model. Build orientation is important for several reasons. First, properties of rapid prototypes vary from one coordinate direction to another. For example, prototypes are usually weaker and less accurate in the z (vertical) direction than in the x-y plane. In addition, part orientation partially determines the amount of time required to build the model. Placing the shortest dimension in the z direction reduces the number of layers, thereby shortening build time. The pre-processing software slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick, depending on the build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled sections. Each PR machine manufacturer supplies their own proprietary pre-processing software.

Layer by Layer Construction: The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several techniques (described in the next section) RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention.

Clean and Finish: The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and detaching any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.

www.RapidTech.org — RapidTech Means Rapid Prototyping, Additive Manufacturing, Reverse Engineering. In this video youll hear Ken Patton and Ed Tackett describe the goals of RapidTech and how both students and businesses benefit from this unique combination of practical, hands-on production and career-building educational experience. Whether you are an educator, entrepreneur or manufacturer, youll find the people, innovation and resources of RapidTech a valuable asset in all areas of reverse engineering, rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing. RapidTech helps educational institutions and industry capitalize on its growing knowledge and experience base in the rapidly changing world of additive manufacturing, reverse engineering, and rapid prototyping. RapidTech is an educational entity that is part of Saddleback College and funded in part by the National Science Foundation. RapidTech assists businesses, educational institutions, entrepreneurs and community-based organizations in developing new products and designs using innovative rapid prototyping technologies, additive manufacturing, and reverse engineering. Ken Patton, Executive Director and Ed Tackett, Director of RapidTech explain how this rigorous educational program provides experiential learning opportunities for students to practice and master these advanced technologies. Students gain invaluable experience while collaborating on real-world projects with aerospace, medical device, automotive, consumer …

Here are some questions and answers about creating wireframes with Justinmind Prototyper.

When do we stop building the wireframe and start the real development of the project?

The answer is simple: when you won’t make any more structural changes. It’s just like building a house. When you have all the structure defined, you’re allowed to make the groundings and start rising your work. But after the groundings, you cannot move the structure. Imagine saying to an engineer: “can you please move this column 3 feet to the left?” No. That also is dangerous when you’re building software. Changing database structures, layout or even snippets of code is hard, and can lead to an enormous amount of bugs.

We always recommend our clients to change whatever they want, as many times as they need, while still on the wireframe, because changing it later can be very painful.

How detailed must my prototype be?

Just enough to let everyone understand what’s going to be built. Some don’t need final graphics, or real text, others need to have data. For example, to test an online store, you may need prices and a database of products. If you must test data, you can wireframe and simulate it with Justinmind Prototyper, or insert the real images from jpgs and pngs.

Whether you need to use real data, real images of fake images and dummy texts (the famous lorem ipsun), it’s up to you and your project. Ask your co-workers and clients to understand their needs, and decide when to stop detailing the prototype.

xWhy not just simply show static mockups of the pages?

Nowadays, web technology has evolved so much, static pages don’t represent everything we see. For example, the webs that change content according to what users do. There are Javascript codes almost everywhere, not just links, but mouse overs, text that changes, colours and properties according to the navigation. How to represent it with static pages?

Functional prototypes can show the real interactions in an easier way, and make it clearer for both clients and developers. So, the final project won’t be different to what was planned.

Simple wireframe, mockup, hi-fi wireframe, prototype. You can do any of them, depending on your objectives. But be always sure of one thing: it’s function is to improve development speed and help everyone to understand the project better.

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